Page 56 - Panjek, Aleksander, Jesper Larsson and Luca Mocarelli, eds. 2017. Integrated Peasant Economy in a Comparative Perspective: Alps, Scandinavia and Beyond. Koper: University of Primorska Press
P. 56
integr ated peasant economy in a compar ative perspective
which lasted from the 13th to the mid-14th century, the formation of towns,
the development of mining, the iron industry and trade, and the separa-
tion of crafts from the countryside created the conditions for subjects to
become involved in market relations. Peasant trade, which had previous-
ly been limited to the exchange of goods at village fairs and parish festi-
vals, began to offer the surplus products of farms at market-places in towns
and “boroughs” (trg, German Markt; a settlement, a community with the
right to hold markets, a “market-town”) as well as at fairs. Peasants were
also involved in long-distance trade, especially in the exchange and/or sale
of cereals, livestock and other foods from Carniolan provinces with litto-
ral towns for salt. They were allegedly “forced” to do so by the decisions of
feudal landlords, who began to change tributes in kind into money tributes
after demesne economy had begun to disintegrate. In Gestrin’s opinion, by
imposing tributes in money, “manors opened their doors wide to the com-
mercialisation process, which thus established itself much more broadly in
society. Hence the subjects who were engaged in trade soon began to tran-
scend the limits of the existing social division of labour” (Gestrin 1973b, 45–
6) by increasingly trading outside of towns and “boroughs,” which began to
create conflict between the towns and the countryside. In the second half of
the 15th century, Gestrin noticed new development tendencies.
Since the beginning of the first major crisis of feudalism and ma-
norialism, especially towards the end of the Middle Ages and later
on throughout the 16th century, the countryside started becoming
more trade-oriented. In the period in question, which is character-
ised by the second stage of the commercialisation of manors, rural
trade was reaching its peak (Gestrin 1973a, 74; 1973b, 45).
The presence of a market economy was so great in manors that it was
beginning to influence the relations within the entire feudal society. The
consequences were evident in the changed structure of the manor and in its
growing commercialisation. Feudal landlords were searching for a way out
of the “manor crisis” in different ways. Among other things, they began to
distinctly interfere in market relations by involving peasants in commercial
transactions; by introducing provisions which stated that peasants were al-
lowed to sell produce and products to them alone, thus making themselves
owners of the peasant trade; and by imposing on the subjects, the obliga-
tion of forced labour transport and the sale of the landlord’s goods (Gestrin
1973a, 74; 1991, 224–6, 235). The requirements of feudal landlords restricted
the trading of peasants in their own produce and goods, yet peasant trade
54
which lasted from the 13th to the mid-14th century, the formation of towns,
the development of mining, the iron industry and trade, and the separa-
tion of crafts from the countryside created the conditions for subjects to
become involved in market relations. Peasant trade, which had previous-
ly been limited to the exchange of goods at village fairs and parish festi-
vals, began to offer the surplus products of farms at market-places in towns
and “boroughs” (trg, German Markt; a settlement, a community with the
right to hold markets, a “market-town”) as well as at fairs. Peasants were
also involved in long-distance trade, especially in the exchange and/or sale
of cereals, livestock and other foods from Carniolan provinces with litto-
ral towns for salt. They were allegedly “forced” to do so by the decisions of
feudal landlords, who began to change tributes in kind into money tributes
after demesne economy had begun to disintegrate. In Gestrin’s opinion, by
imposing tributes in money, “manors opened their doors wide to the com-
mercialisation process, which thus established itself much more broadly in
society. Hence the subjects who were engaged in trade soon began to tran-
scend the limits of the existing social division of labour” (Gestrin 1973b, 45–
6) by increasingly trading outside of towns and “boroughs,” which began to
create conflict between the towns and the countryside. In the second half of
the 15th century, Gestrin noticed new development tendencies.
Since the beginning of the first major crisis of feudalism and ma-
norialism, especially towards the end of the Middle Ages and later
on throughout the 16th century, the countryside started becoming
more trade-oriented. In the period in question, which is character-
ised by the second stage of the commercialisation of manors, rural
trade was reaching its peak (Gestrin 1973a, 74; 1973b, 45).
The presence of a market economy was so great in manors that it was
beginning to influence the relations within the entire feudal society. The
consequences were evident in the changed structure of the manor and in its
growing commercialisation. Feudal landlords were searching for a way out
of the “manor crisis” in different ways. Among other things, they began to
distinctly interfere in market relations by involving peasants in commercial
transactions; by introducing provisions which stated that peasants were al-
lowed to sell produce and products to them alone, thus making themselves
owners of the peasant trade; and by imposing on the subjects, the obliga-
tion of forced labour transport and the sale of the landlord’s goods (Gestrin
1973a, 74; 1991, 224–6, 235). The requirements of feudal landlords restricted
the trading of peasants in their own produce and goods, yet peasant trade
54
