Page 88 - Studia Universitatis Hereditati, vol 13(1) (2025)

Namibia, contract archaeology is a client-driv- of the development, and make recommenda-
en, legally binding agreement to carry out a sur- tions for mitigation or conservation (Associa-
vey, assess impacts, and to advise on mitigation tion of Southern African Professional Archae-
as part of ensuring legal compliance. Rescuing ologists, n.d.).They usually are not the major
or salvaging is only done where necessary. There- components of the environmental impact assess-
fore, the term ‘contract archaeology’ is used in ment plans, although they are important com-
this paper to refer to a practice of archaeolo- ponents. Contract archaeology in Namibia drew
gy whereby there is an agreement between two its authority from environmental impact as-
or more parties to engage in a relationship that sessments. However, Ndlovu argues that while
2
perceives archaeological heritage as the common some archaeologists perceive some differences in
factor that needs to be mitigated in response the terms used, there are some still similarities,
to the dictates of environmental laws. It is per- hence he refers to the practice in a universal term
88 formed for economic gain in the commercial en- – developer funded archaeology (Ndlovu 2014,
vironment of development where one provides 204). It is a practice in cultural resources man-
specialist heritage impact assessment reports for agement as well. Contract archaeology makes its
studia universitatis hereditati, letnik 13 (2025), številka 1 / volume 13 (2025), number 1
environmental impact assessments, as required claim and justification from the point of view of
by both the environmental and heritage laws of heritage protection, in ways that are subordinat-
Namibia. ed to commercial frameworks.
Some archaeologists argue that there must
be a distinction between contract archaeology Contract Archaeology in Namibia
and cultural resources management (CRM) be- and Southern Africa
cause generally, the contracts on which archae- The rise of contract archaeology worldwide was
ologists are engaged rarely involve the manage- entangled with the emergence of environmen-
ment of cultural resources (Kinahan 2013, 1). tal conservation laws, as a response to the gen-
Such an argument and observation is based on eral economic boom that followed the great de-
how contract archaeology evolved and how it pression and the Second World War. There was
was practiced in Namibia. Contract archaeology a concern that material culture needed to be
was predicated on the specialist archaeological recorded because of the potential destruction
reports for environmental impact assessments. of material evidence as part of post-war devel-
Specialist archaeological reports were incorpo- opment and the rebuilding of war-ravaged ur-
rated as components of the environmental im- ban landscapes. In countries such as the Unit-
pact assessments that did not require the pro- ed Kingdom and the United States of America,
duction of management and conservation plans. the decade of the 1960s was one of econom-
Specialist reports are more often perceived as ap- ic expansion that was manifested by the in-
pendices that are required for the purposes of crease in development projects in the construc-
applying for consent from the National Heritage tion sector. Large earth-moving projects were
Council, in accordance with the requirements taking place, which disturbed archaeological
for obtaining an environmental clearance certif- sites, both those that were buried and surface
icate. According to the Association of Southern sites. There arose the need to record the sites be-
African Professional Archaeologists (ASAPA) fore they were disturbed and destroyed. In re-
guidelines, specialist reports identify sites, assess sponse to this desire to record material evidence
significance, comment on the possible impact of human history, a new branch of archaeology
2 This is evident in the common structure of advertisements for contract archaeology positions, which typically begin by contex-
tualising the role within the framework of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA), Environmental and Social Impact Assess-
ments (ESIA), and Environmental Management Plans (EMP). These advertisements explicitly reference the relevant policies,
stating, for example, that as part of the ESIA, it is required that a Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) is conducted. Against this
background, a heritage specialist/archaeologist is required to conduct the HIA.