Page 96 - Studia Universitatis Hereditati, vol 13(1) (2025)

law in Namibia was not operationalised. Thus, veloped their own regulations that were imple-
contract archaeology made its claim, validation mented in Namibia. In this case, archaeological
and authorisation through an interpretation of service providers were required to follow inter-
the definition of ‘environment’ that was pro- national best practice. Therefore, this paper con-
vided in the Environmental Management Act. tends that contract archaeology in Namibia also
Contract archaeologists justified their work by emerged as a response to external stimuli. Ad-
citing the Environmental Management Act, herence to international best practices and the
which governs Environmental Impact Assess- need to maintain consistency in mining opera-
ments (EIAs) in Namibia and includes provi- tions were catalysts for the evolution and growth
sions for protecting the anthropogenic environ- of contract archaeology.
ment. They argued that strict compliance with The practice of contract archaeology in Na-
the Act inherently mandates archaeological as- mibia was shaped by the history of its evolution.
96 sessments as part of the EIA process. It emerged as an elitist and capitalist practice of
Contract archaeology in Namibia was stim- cultural resource management and knowledge
ulated mainly by the legal requirements for en- production. This was done based on the legal re-
studia universitatis hereditati, letnik 13 (2025), številka 1 / volume 13 (2025), number 1
vironmental impact assessments. The promul- quirement for qualified professionals to prac-
gation of the National Heritage Act (2004) and tice archaeology and the tendency of contract ar-
the Environmental Management Act (Act 7 of chaeology to respond to market forces. For more
2007) exerted pressure on developers to comply than two decades, it remained unregulated and
with legal requirements. In the case of the Na- thrived on the good will of the developer and
tional Heritage Act, it was clearly stated that a the consultant archaeologist. The consultant ar-
suitably qualified person was to be engaged to chaeologist determined what was of archaeolog-
carry out the impact assessments. This influ- ical significance. Where the developer commis-
enced the rise of contract archaeology as it ap- sioned an archaeological survey, the developer
peared to be a better source of income for archae- decided whether to implement the recommen-
ologists. Just like it was in South Africa, contract dations of the reports. The reports were the
archaeology diversified job opportunities for ar- property of developers who were the contract-
chaeologists in Namibia where the market was ing agencies (Kinahan 2013, 1). Archaeological
generally small. service providers were accountable to the con-
The fact that there were no archaeology pro- tracting agency and not the National Heritage
grammes in the university where one could be Council since the permits were in the name of
employed as an academic archaeologist also in- the contracting agency.
fluenced the rise of contract archaeology. The In Namibia, a few scholar-archaeologists
only other options for gainful employment were have been able to practice as contract archaeol-
limited to the National Museum of Namibia or ogists and to conduct scholarship based on this
in the National Heritage Council. research. While it is possible for contract archae-
Contract archaeology also emerged as a ology to involve research and scholarship, it has
practice that focussed on large scale archaeolog- mainly developed as a domain of mitigation and
ical surveys that were commissioned by multi- rescue that occurs in a commercialised environ-
national mining companies. The uranium rush ment of development. In the absence of lectur-
of the 1990s increased the demand for contract ing posts in archaeology at Namibian univer-
archaeology as a sub-practice in environmen- sities, contract archaeology has emerged as an
tal management. The mining companies oper- alternative form of employment for archaeolo-
ated in other countries where heritage impact gists. In addition to being a form of employment,
assessment laws were elaborately and strictly contract archaeology has provided some finan-
enforced. They adopted these practices and de- cial resources required for the analysis of arte-