Page 108 - Studia Universitatis Hereditati, vol 13(1) (2025)

The lack of direct analysis prevents a deeper
exploration of how these substances shaped Eu-
ropean society, from medical practices to leisure
activities. In addition to the archaeological evi-
dence, literary sources provide insights into the
medical and recreational use of these psychoac-
tive substances. However, without a more de-
tailed examination of the material culture, our
knowledge of the everyday use of Cannabis sp.
and opium remains underdeveloped.
In summary, this study offers a preliminary
investigation into the presence and perception of
108 cannabis and opium in post-medieval contexts,
with a particular focus on Portuguese and Euro-
studia universitatis hereditati, letnik 13 (2025), številka 1 / volume 13 (2025), number 1
pean sources. Drawing on a combination of ar-
chaeological findings and literary, medical, and
ethnographic texts, it has highlighted how these
psychoactive substances were understood, used,
and regulated within diverse cultural frameworks.
While much attention has historically been given
Figure 5: ‘Une piscine dans le harem’ by Jean-Léon to tobacco, the examples presented here suggested
Gérôme, c. 1876 (Hermitage Museum work ID: 37799) that cannabis and opium also played meaningful
roles in shaping practices related to healing, intox-
cau, a former Portuguese colony in present day ication, ritual, and daily life.
China, reflects this turning point and foreshad- The evidence remains fragmentary, and
ows Portugal’s declining control over the drug many questions persist. However, this pa-
f4, 5 trade (Santos 1996, 225). per contributes to a growing investigation that
seeks to reassess early modern engagements with
Conclusion mind-altering substances beyond simplistic nar-
While some research has provided compelling ratives of prohibition or exoticism. By situating
evidence that tobacco was sometimes integrat- cannabis and opium within wider networks of
ed with other substances and it varied in quali- exchange, labour, empire, and medicine, it be-
ty (Cessford 2001, 95), the assumption that clay comes possible to understand these substances
pipes were used exclusively for tobacco overlooks not only as pharmacological agents but also as
the possibility that other substances may also carriers of meaning, power, and memories. Con-
have been smoked in an increasingly globalized tinued interdisciplinary research may help clar-
world. ify their place in the material and intellectual
On the other hand, while the presence of history of early modern Europe and reveal how
cannabis and opium in post-medieval Portugal altered states of consciousness were culturally
is still insufficiently understood, the available ev- negotiated long before the modern era of drug
idence indicates that these substances occupied a policy and neuroscience.
range of roles, from medicinal and therapeutic to
recreational and symbolic. Their meanings and Acknowledgments
applications were likely shaped by a complex in- I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Agata
terplay of local traditions and broader global cur- Pawlina, who gladly answered the e-mail entitled:
rents in trade, medicine, and cultural exchange. ‘Help regarding Wojciech Bobowski’, providing